Literature+Review+-+Paper

In the past institutions of higher learning have spent enormous sums to hire private consultants and management experts to provide advice and direction for their institutions (The Learning Alliance for Higher Education, 2005). However, history has shown that these individuals did not always have a deep enough knowledge of higher education institutions or a true commitment to the purposes of the institution to truly provide appropriate assistance. The Learning Alliance for Higher Education was created to provide "educational research and leadership support services to presidents of accredited, non-profit, two- and four-year colleges and universities" (p.57). The report highlights the most pressing issues for top administrators relate to management, organization and process. Specific issues of interest included the "pros and cons of IT outsourcing, outcomes assessment regarding learning outcomes, integrated administrative management systems, successful institutional change, setting metrics for restructuring, and evaluation of administrative structures" (p.59). Daigneau et al. (2005) identified five mega-trends that will influence the functions and process of higher education. Viewed through the lens of the changing demographics of today's college student, the authors looked at how higher education will need to change to meet these new student needs. In relation to access and efficiency universities must streamline in order to control the ever-increasing costs of higher education so that we are not pricing education out of the reach of most potential students. Technology is constantly changing, needing to be upgraded and maintained. “Today's research facilities are the most expensive to build, equip and operate” (Daigneau et al, 2005, p.14). In recent years higher education has seen ever increasing involvement by the government in terms of accountability. Institutions are being increasingly required to show what students are learning, where learning is happening, and how services are provided. Much recent focus is also centered on the connection between higher education and the environment. How will campuses be built, used and renovated to focus on the areas of reuse, recycle and reduce (Daigneau et al., 2005)? Although very little research has been focused on streamlining higher education workflow, these few studies evaluate problems within the organization such as, timely processing, accessibility/organization of information, and specific workflow directions. According to the literature, workflow has always been a struggle within the university system. Before technology, workflow within higher education was a paper trail that usually traveled through specific professors and administrators in order to eliminate mistakes and human errors. However, as the years have progressed the workflow has been more confusing than ever. These expectations should be clearly defined in the instructions and should be accessible either online or in paper. Having mixed options or unclearly defined expectations creates chaos for students and staff (Cross, Frazier, and Hulett, 2000). Moxley, Najor-Durack, and Dumbrigue explain that accessibility involves assisting students in finding accommodations and reducing barriers that will in turn enable success (2001). This process is confusing as efforts to accessibility sometimes include storing forms and applications in a number of places. Some forms are located online while other forms are online available in paper format. This process involves finding non-centrally located forms, filling forms out, accessing adequate signatures, and depositing to different departments. The solution to the workflow problems revolve around streamlining the administrative and student expectations. As there has been a spike in postsecondary education interest concerning workflow and accessibility it is encouraging that student stress will be relieved. Organization in higher education is not a new concept however has been distorted through years of trying to resolve this problem. Creating a unified system in this particular area will increase productivity and efficiency (Bolman & Deal, 1991). For an organization to obtain and sustain peak performance, it must continuously review and improve services to satisfy the consumer or in this case, the students (Bell, 2001). Existing literature concerning student performance suggests that students that take advantages of opportunities in accessibility tend to perform better and receive higher grades (Ford, Stahl, Walker, & Ford, 2008). In comparison to other types of workflow processes, studies conclude that universities that persist in unifying the workflow process have more sustainable and timeless practices (Street, 2000). These qualities and attributes attract students during the application process, transfer, and students considering changing institutional enrollment (Adelman, 2007). Students praise online enrollment systems for intricate and innovative characteristics including but not limited to: relative advantage, accessibility, compatibility, and innovation (Demir, 1996). Total Quality Management (TQM) is a process that looks critically at quality control, systems, tools and organizational models when determining need for change within higher education. TQM, which is often attributed to W. Edwards Deming among others, encompasses department-wide participation in the process of planning and implementing of continuous improvement. TQM makes the assumption that an organization’s problems stem from how it is doing things rather than who is doing them. Simply put, listen to your customer, assess their needs and make changes to your operation that will improve your quality and your customer will be happy. (Coate, L. Edwin 1992) “TQM began as a simple quest by customers for quality in products. Customers would examine products to see if they met their standards prior to purchasing them. These simple reactive procedures conducted by customers eventually led to the internalization of proactive quality assurance measures in manufacturing and service industries” (Sims, Serbrenia J. and Sims, Ronald R., 1995, Eds. p.2) When one looks at Deming’s model for the continuous improvement it is evident that the process is made up of a series of defined steps which are repeated to emphasize the continuous nature of the process. One must design, produce, implement and evaluate the system with the understanding that complete satisfaction will never fully be realized. Each member of the team must be involved in the process and take ownership of its success and failures. Too often we fail to evaluate and start the process over which leads to disconnection and customer dissatisfaction. Cornesky et al. (1992) Seymour (1992) explained that “The philosophy and tools of Total Quality Management are not a magic potion able to turn a poorly run, noncompetitive organization into one that operates with awe inspiring efficiency and effectiveness, but the fact is that TQM has made a difference in organizations around the world. It cannot be dismissed as another management fad. It is not academic whimsy. It is too well grounded in a scientific approach to problem solving and it has been tested, scrutinized, and revised in thousands of organizations over a period of more than three decades. Bottom line: It works. (p.ix) The Lean Manufacturing concept was first introduced by the Toyota Motor Company in the 1950s (Womack and Jones, 1996; Lean and its limits, 1996). On the website [|www.lean.org], Jim Womack defines a lean organization as understanding customer value and focusing its key processes to continuously increase that value. While the Toyota process was under study by MIT students enrolled in the International Motor Vehicle Program and headed by Jim Womack, Ph.D., the process was labeled as “Lean Production.” (Balzer, 2010) The Lean Production concept “has over 50 years of data to support that its balanced 'top-down' and 'bottom-up' approach can lead to immediate, significant, and long lasting improvements" (Balzer, 2010, p.13). Given these beginnings, application has historically taken place in industrial fields (Womack & Jones, 1996; Mangan & Sadiq, 2002; James, 2005; Knight & Haslam, 2010; Robinette, 2006; Tischler, 2006; Vidal, 2007). Fliedner & Mathieson (2009) emphasize that “businesses must increasingly rely on cost cutting, waste elimination, productivity improvement, and quality enhancement as strategic means to achieving profit objectives” (p.194). Baines, Lightfoot, Williams, & Greenough (2006) observe that “authors such as Womack and Jones see that ‘lean thinking’ can also be applied to great effect outside manufacturing operations, although examples of this, such as applications in service-based enterprises, are relatively rare” (p.1539). On the website [|www.lean.org] James Womack states “A popular misconception is that lean is suited only for manufacturing. Not true. Lean applies to every business and every process.” Emiliani (2005) points out that many people in higher education view lean as a manufacturing concept and not applicable to higher education. However, he believes that "lean management can help improve individual courses and degree programs, enhance student services, and differentiate their programs from others in the marketplace" (p.56). Given the economic and societal pressures currently facing higher education, some are beginning to realize the value in application of this theory to higher education (C. Comm, L. & Mathaisel, 2003; C. L. Comm & Mathaisel, 2005a, 2005b; Balzer, 2010). Through this emerging research we are beginning to see the results of lean theory when applied to specific processes and programs within higher education. Emiliani (2005) saw that there was a large amount of waste in systems at the Lally School of Management and Technology at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s Hartford, Connecticut campus including the admissions process, advising, curriculum, degree programs, and student services. Foster (2007) defines waste as "anything in the process that does not add value for the customer" (p.87). Foster suggests different areas to explore within higher education when looking for waste. Defects - including items such as “corrections, adjustments, or inaccurate or incomplete information, which can lead to scrap or rework" (p.249). Examples would include missing or incomplete information on any type of administrative form such as: applications, registration forms, petition forms, and financial aid forms. Motion - referring to steps in a process which are unproductive, duplication, or "non-value adding" (p.249). The notion of waiting in relation to waste pertains to the customer. Waste areas would include waiting for a decision on an enrollment application, financial aid, waiting to see an academic adviser, administrator who needs to sign paperwork, or a checkout line. Processing – explained by Foster as being "caused by either the excess of or lack of people, materials, equipment, and other resources needed to facilitate teaching and learning on the campus" (p.249). One example of processing waste is the requiring of multiple signatures on an academic petition form. Furthermore, Foster points out that "underutilizing employees by failing to tap into their education, knowledge, and expertise also poses a serious waste for the institution" (p.249). Tischler (2006) conducted two lean projects in the office of Admissions. The first project dealt with the handling of admission inquiries by the university. The initial value stream included 13 steps and took an average of two to three weeks - including approximately a 10 day wait from the inquirer's initial call until they heard from anyone at the university. Following the implementation of lean processes the time from the beginning of the process until the end was reduced to one day. The second process where Tischler applied the lean process was the processing of student applications. The research team attempted to map the process, which was comprised of a series of confusing and often overlapping steps, and counted 88 before they determined that the process could not in fact be mapped. The process team decided to focus back on the core question of "What customer value was being created?" (p.36), and focused process on the concept that "the student applicants wanted to get through the system quickly and wanted to be able to know at any time where they stood in the system" (p.36). "Now each piece of data is entered only once, there are fewer staff handoffs, fewer errors, less overall work, shorter wait times, and all process owners and customers have instant access to an applicant's progress" (p.37). Comm & Mathaisel summarize that higher education as a whole needs to become more educated about the true meaning of lean (2005b). Individuals often believe that they are using lean thinking when in fact they are making short term decisions with limited reach. According to Comm & Mathaisel lean thinking requires individuals to evaluate process with the intention to rework them in order to provide customers with the most value to their customers (2005b). Comm & Mathaisel apply Womack lean thought processes at a macro level to create the following scenario for an academic institution: "The institution would define its niche and be able to provide a product second to none to meet the demand of its students. Each school would develop a map of its administrative and academic processes to efficiently and cost-effectively deliver the value that the student expects from his/her educational experience. Technology would provide a valuable transport mechanism to the flow of information. Processes would be streamlined and waste would be minimized through outsourcing functions that are not contributing to the core mission of the college. Imagine a collaborative, higher education environment where duplicate functions do not exist but have shared resources with other institutions" (p.237). <span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Kara and DeShields Jr. illustrate the important relationship between business student satisfaction and student intentions to stay enrolled in a university. The results produced from this study imply that students’ college experience is positively related to their satisfaction and intentions to stay at a university. Higher education institutions are customer based and it is recommended by research that universities and colleges apply a consumer-oriented philosophy when delivering their services. It is important to note that the study does not specifically investigate the correlation between consumer-oriented educational institutions and student retention. But a main implication of the produced research is that educational institutions that understand consumer-oriented principles may have a better chance of satisfying the wants and needs of students more effectively. The Satisfaction and Retention Model developed by Keaveney and Young (1997) is utilized in this study. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Brookes presents a research evidence for the importance of student evaluation of “entire hospitality programs or courses in higher education”. The study provides results on research covering the total student experience and quality management and enhancement. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Aldridge and Rowley present and analyze a methodology that was developed to measure student satisfaction with significant components of the service experience delivered to students at Edge Hill University College. The study utilizes questionnaire-based survey as the instrument to collect data on student satisfaction. Responses to the survey were collected electronically through the internet and the results analyze the efficiency of online surveys and student service experience <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">The graduate student satisfaction study at the University of Baltimore County examines several facets of graduate student satisfaction with in a higher education institution. The area of concern in this report refers to student satisfaction with administrative services, more specifically registration processes. Both international and non-international students were targeted throughout this study. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">A Student Satisfaction Survey was administered at Calhoun Community College with implications to fulfill requirements of the state as well as provide data and feedback on the supportive services of the college (Admissions and the Business Office). The study utilized a Student Satisfaction survey which was a locally developed instrument to determine the current success of aforementioned services based on student feedback at the college.